Gabriele Paleotti, [Discourse on Sacred and Profane Images (1582)] Part One

Review by Giovanni Mazzaferro
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Gabriele Paleotti
Discorso intorno alle immagini sacre e profane (1582)
[Discourse on Sacred and Profane Images (1582)]

Part One
Scientific Direction Stefano Della Torre
Transcript in modern Italian by Gian Franco Freguglia
Foreword by Carlo Chenis

Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 2002

Anonymous, Portrait of cardinal Gabriele Paleotti
Source: http://www.archiviostorico.unibo.it/System/19/849/QUA_103_R.jpg 

The Discourse on sacred and profane images by Cardinal Gabriele Paleotti, published in 1582, and addressed by the then bishop of Bologna "to the people of the city and his diocese" was one of the most studied texts by art historians in the second half of the twentieth century. In fact, the Discourse had been object of analysis also before, at least since the early twentieth century, but mainly to assess its influence on style aspects. There were those who saw Paleotti’s work as the tomb stone against mannerism and had read it in the framework of the birth of Baroque, which would be the style of Counterreformation par excellence. It is probably for this reason, i.e. having consideration of spillover effects of the Discourse on style, that Schlosser dismissed it in a few lines in his Art Literature (1924): "Still, the angle is quite always theological; the referred examples are educational and academic; its immediate influence on art was indeed minimal" (p. 430). After all, Schlosser was right: in the whole work there is no explicit reference condemning or supporting whatever style direction.

Things changed in the second half of the twentieth century. And they changed especially because of the positive reassessment of the Carraccis: one cannot, in this regard, overlook the famous retrospective exhibition dedicated to them in Bologna in 1956 [1]. It is evident that the rediscovery of Annibale, Agostino and Ludovico and the Bolognese painting at the turn of the sixteenth and seventeenth century raised the issue of figuring out how far they fell under the influence of (and interpreted the guidance by) Paleotti, who published the book in 1582, but had been the bishop of the city since 1566. Not to mention that, despite the deliberately self-restrictive interpretation given by the author on his Discourse (which was, nominally, only addressed to his diocese), Paleotti was an authoritative name when addressing issues concerning the Council, having been the assistant of the cardinals involved in it during its last years and a panel member who worked to print the records after its conclusion (1563).

So, in 1961 Paola Barocchi presented the first modern edition of the Discourse within her Trattati d’arte del Cinquecento fra Manierismo e Controriforma (Art Treatisies of the Sixteenth Century between Mannerism and the Counter-Reformation) published by Laterza [2]; soon after it was released the Ricerca sulla teorica delle arti figurative nella riforma cattolica (Research on the Theory of the Visual Arts in the Catholic reform) by Paolo Prodi, a work reprinted many times over the last fifty years for its importance; this survey was almost completely focusing on the study of Paleotti’s text [3]. It is difficult to list all other contributions that followed since the early '60s onwards. We want to recall, among the most recent: Ilaria Bianchi, La politica delle immagini nell’età della Controriforma (The Politics of Pictures in the Age of the Counter-Reformation), which has the merit of exploring once again the sheets of the Isolani archive containing the preparatory materials of the Discourse (Bologna, Edizioni Compositori, 2008 ); and Il Concilio di Trento e le arti 1563-2013 (The Council of Trent and the Arts 1563-2013), edited by Marinella Pigozzi (Bologna, Bononia University Press, 2015). William Mc Cuaig edited the first English translation of Paleotti's Discourse, published in 2012 by The Getty Research Institute (the translation is conducted over Paola Barocchi's 1961 version).

Among the many initiatives, we should not forget, of course, the volume under review here, which presented the translation of Paleotti’s speech in modern Italian in 2002. This was a certainly debatable endeavour, in particular for those who believe it is essential to preserve the text in the original version; however, it has the undoubted merit of making it easier for the interested audience to read it. I think this decision was based on the same spirit that pervaded the didactic-religious work of the cardinal, who, not surprisingly, wrote in the notes to the reader: "In many chapters... we proposed the subject scrupulously and with doctrinal concepts... For the same purpose, we have included numerous quotations in Latin without translation, as they are addressed to educated people; where the message was however more specifically directed to the artists, we decided to translate the mentioned passages into everyday language [editor's note: in practice, it never happened. But it is clear that the cardinal wanted it to be done] and to supply them with an extensive and comprehensive explanation." (p. 7).

Prospero Fontana, Entombment of Jesus, Bologna National Gallery
Source: http://mariapaolaforlani.blogspot.it/2015/12/tra-la-vita-e-la-morte.html

The History of the Treatise

The Discourse bears the date 1582 on the title page, but was probably printed a few months before (a December 1581 letter from Paleotti to Carlo Borromeo makes faith, as it accompanied the copy of the Treatise sent to the recipient). It was an incomplete work. Although it was planned as composed of five books, it only had two of them. Paleotti himself explained at the end of the book: "There are still three books that will be published in due course. As it was our desire, before publishing the current two books, that they would be submitted to other experts, in addition to those who have helped to write them, it was decided to print a few copies for convenience of those who will review them, not certain to be widespread [note of the editor: in fact, the work will never enter the market]. Once all the work will have been completed, all five books will be disseminated together. For now suffices the general index at the beginning of the Treaty, which informs the readers about the content of the entire work." (p. 269). I think these few lines are enough to capture the "provisional" and "dialoguing" feature, deliberately attributed by Paleotti to his work. Everything, of course, has to be understood with due caution: today, the proposal - repeated several times - to establish an Index of Prohibited Paintings (along the lines of the Index of Forbidden Books, created following the Council of Trent), would not look like very "dialoguing". But the general tone of the work does not appear as strictly prescriptive as they were St. Carlo Borromeo’s Instructiones Fabricae et Supellectilis ecclesiasticae (Instructions on the Erection and Furnishings of Churches) published five years earlier (1577). In the Instructions, there was a punctual and binding instruction on the furniture and all aspect of religious buildings . In many ways, however, Paleotti’s Discourse can be seen as a complementary work to the one of Borromeo, whose attention to the pictures adorning the churches had been minimal. Moreover, the archival studies first made by Paolo Prodi in the Isolani cards in Bologna (unfortunately mutilated or made difficult to read as a result of the bombings of World War II) would suggest that the Bolognese Cardinal started to work in 1578. The same studies revealed that Paleotti had various counterparts (including Borromeo himself) whom he sent the first drafts of his work to, in order to receive opinions and suggestions. It is evident, in particular, that he received support from circles at the University of Bologna (in particular by the historian Carlo Sigonio and the naturalist Ulisse Aldrovandi) and that he also dialogued with contemporary artists, such as the painter Prospero Fontana. After all, it is sufficient to look through the organization of the two published books, as well as the index of the three planned ones [4], to see that the structure on which the whole Discourse is based was of a strictly classificatory nature, and reminded in many ways the organization of Ulisse Aldrovandi’s "natural museum". The link with the Bologna university appears undoubtedly tight and was explained by Paleotti himself, once again in the note to the readers: "His Illustrious Lordship then held that this purpose [editor's note: the proper use of the images] is especially suited to the city of Bologna, considered as the master of studies, so that it may provide a rule and act as example even to strangers in good works and in doing anything well" (p. 9).

Lodovico Carracci, Annunciation, about 1585, Bologna National Gallery
Source: Wikimedia Commons

Overall, therefore, the edition of 1582 appears as a pastoral call to "return to order" in the use of sacred and profane images. The call was addressed to parish priests, artists and patrons (i.e. to the nobles). It highlighted the illegality of customs that went against the spirit of the Catholic religion, and recommended changing them. However, it came short of questioning the social order that was widely shared. So the most problematic passages were precisely those concerning typically aristocratic habits (a case of all: the - execrable - presence of the coats of arms of noble families in the churches) where the intention clearly appears to persuade them rather than to prohibit or to impose anything.

In 1583, Paleotti became archbishop, and was called to Rome in 1589. In 1594 a Latin edition of the Discourse was published in Ingolstadt; this was an important qualitative leap. Clearly, with the Latin publication, he aimed at capturing a much wider, but also far more educated audience [5]. The rapid depletion of the Latin edition was a sign of the interest that the subject continued to raise.

But the disenchantment of the Cardinal (who died in 1597) appeared in all its evidence in the memorial De tollendis imaginum abusibus novissima consideratio (The latest consideration on removing abusive images), written in 1596 and circulated within a small circle of cardinals and prelates. There, Paleotti stigmatized how, more than thirty years after the end of the Council, the abuses in the iconography of the sacred and profane images continued more than ever; therefore, he supported, this time, a policy of repression against those committing them. Somehow, it was a declaration of bankruptcy of a man who had lost faith in the persuasive power of catechesis and to whom it remained only to urge the severity of the papal administration.

Lodovico Carracci, Bargellini Altarpiece, 1588, Bologna National Gallery
Source: Wikimedia Commons

Structure of the Treatise

It was said that the Treatise was originally planned to be composed of five books: the first two were of an essentially theoretical nature, while in the last three prevailed iconographic aspects. The indications given by Paleotti were so clear that it is worth to quote them verbatim: "The first book consists of three main parts: first, the subject of the images is approached from a general point of view, as the foundation to the rest of the arguments put forward; after stating what the purpose of the work is and in what way the term 'image' is to be understood, we are seeking their causes and origins, emphasizing their dignity and beauty, analyzing the major arts that shape images, and comparing Painting and Sculpture. The second part deals with the subject of the images by dividing them into two categories: the profane images and the sacred images [...]. The third part speaks extensively of sacred images: it shows their ancient use, their origin, indicating the purpose and aim that they should have, the effect they must produce and the need for the use which the Christian people should make of them [...]. 

In the second book, we discuss the main abuses that are often found in images; like in the first book, the subject is divided in sacred and profane images. Therefore, this book is also structured in three main parts; the first discusses the abuses in the sacred images, the second the abuses in secular images, and the third the abuses which are common to the sacred and profane images".

Agostino Carracci, The Last Communion of Saint Jerome, Bologna National Gallery
Source: Wikimedia Commons

And indeed, it is true that in the second book the arguments on the abuse of the images (false or misleading, implausible, indecorous, without proportion, imperfect, useless, ridiculous, with unusual or new subjects, with an obscure meaning, imprecise and uncertain, raw and appalling, with monstrous subjects) are accompanied by a few examples. However, clearly the precise definition of those iconographic themes which were due at least to contribute to a possible index of prohibited paintings, was expected for in subsequent books (particularly in the fourth). Paleotti continues: "The third book deals with the subject of the lascivious and immoral images because, of all the abuses, this seemed to be the most dangerous, deceitful, and the most widespread in almost all places of Christianity." We are talking, of course - but not only – of the nude; in fact, some index entries prepared by the Cardinal leave no doubt: "Chapter II – About the great inclination that our nature has towards the vices of the flesh, and from there it derives; Chapter XVI - About the nude figures, and how much the chaste eyes should be disgusted; Chapter XVIII – On the saints who can be represented naked in some parts and how; Chap. XXI To ensure that in no way faces of young men or of lascivious women , or likewise of other special people, are depicted in the forms of saints." [6].

Domenichino, Last Communion of St. Jerome, 1614, Vatican Museums
Source: Wikimedia Commons

With reference to the next section, Paleotti wrote: "In the fourth book we meticulously treated, chapter by chapter, each of the images which are most frequently found in our city and in the diocese, and, presumably, in all other places of Christianity; it was thought that, by analyzing specifically this topic, we would have more progress, because, by addressing the issue only in a general and abstract manner, we would not have achieved to strike the attention of the reader. Thus we started analyzing the way in which God the Father, the Son, the Holy Spirit and all the mysteries related to them, the glorious Virgin, the angels, the patriarchs, the apostles and all the others [ ...] are depicted. For each subject we provided some information, by applying as much as possible specifically the decrees of the sacred Council, just like the doctors apply their theories and general studies to different diseases of individual patients." While it is clear that the Discourse was not due to contemplate the presence of images, it is on the other hand obvious what we missed: a repertoire related to the iconography of sacred images. Ilaria Bianchi wrote: "We do not know how many of the pages that the Bolognese Cardinal had initially planned to fill were actually written. What is certain is that only a few fragments [editor's note: of the fourth book] remain to us, related to the depiction of God the Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit, something about the more complex representation of the Trinity, as well as the notes taken from sources, that the theorist intended to use to roll out the pages on the Transfiguration." [7]. Similarly, we do not know whether Paleotti had launched an investigation on, or started (personally or through third parties) the filing of the sacred artistic heritage in Bologna; it would, of course, be a crucial document, which would testify that the task was actually linked to the territory.

Finally, "the fifth book addresses other issues of a different nature, to the benefit of the priests, the heads of families and the painters themselves, so that they can exercise their art according to Christian principles, concluding with the instructions to follow in the future in shaping images in our city and in our diocese" (p. 10). In fact, judging from the index, Paleotti also planned to deal with images outside the church buildings and to set how to decorate the palaces of the magistrates, the public courtrooms (chap. XII), the public academies and libraries (chap. XIII), but also the houses (chap. XVII) and the taverns within and outside the city (chap. XVI).

End of Part One
Go to Part Two 

NOTES

[1] See the catalogue: Mostra dei Carracci (The Carracci’s Exhibition): 1 September to 31 October 1956 Bologna Archiginnasio / critical catalog curated by Gian Carlo Cavalli ... [and others]; with a note of Denis Mahon; introduction by Cesare Gnudi. Bologna, Alfa, 1956.

[2] The Barocchi version is now available online at

http://memofonte.accademiadellacrusca.org/sala_lettura.asp.

[3] Originally, the text was released as an anticipated extract (1962) in the Italian magazine Archive for the History of Piety, where it was then released three years later (Vol III, 1965). I would also like to remember the 1984 edition, published by Nuova Alfa Editoriale, and the most recent Paolo Prodi, Arte e pietà nelle Chiesa tridentina (Art and piety in the Tridentine Church) (Il Mulino Publishers, 2014), whose basic core was nothing but - once again – the 1962 essay.

[4] Without any reasons, the indexes (or "boards") of books III, IV and V are not included in this edition. For easy reference, please refer to Barocchi’s online edition (from page 209 onwards).

[5] We are not informed of critical editions of the Latin edition, which is generically referred to as the faithful translation of the Italian text (apart from the absence of the two initial preface pages). It will certainly be so, but it would be good to check. A rapid survey of the (few) passages relating to Bologna’s reality in 1582 reveals that they were "sterilized" in the Latin version of 1594. Moreover, I am pointing out the presence in the Latin version of a rich subject index (which is missing in the Italian one). In short, a more detailed comparison between version 1582 and that of 1594 would be desirable. The Latin edition is available online at the link 

http://bildsuche.digitale-sammlungen.de/?c=viewer&bandnummer=bsb00022427&pimage=00001&v=100&einzelsegmentsuche=&mehrsegmentsuche=&l=it

[6] See the Barocchi version, p. 209 (cfr. Note 2).

[7] Ilaria Bianchi, La politica delle immagini nell’età della Controriforma. Gabriele Paleotti teorico e committente (The politics of images in the age of the Counter-Reformation. Gabriele Paleotti as theorist and patron, Bologna, Compositori Publishers, 2008, p. 221.